Motivation
Motivation explains why people behave as they do. Some scientists
view
motivation as the factor that determines behaviour, as expressed in the
phrase
All behaviour is motivated.(World Book, 1986, p.721). Other
scientists focus on
two certain aspects of motivated behaviour, excitement or
exhilaration of
behaviour, that is motivation arouses an organism and causes
it to act, and the
direction of behaviour, which is lead by habits, skills,
abilities and
structural features. (World Book, 1986). This essay aims to
describe the four
theories of motivation, Instinct theory, Sociobiology,
Drive-Reduction theory
and Incentive theory. I will be relating each theory
to George`s behaviour and
whether they do or do not apply to George`s
behaviour. Instinct is behaviour
that is inherited rather than learned.
Instinct is an inborn tendency/biological
force that dominates behaviour.
(Weiten, 1995). William McDougall (1908) viewed
instincts as unlearned,
universal in expression and universal in a species. (Weiten,
1995). John
Bowlby (1969) views instinct with regards to baby`s attachment to
their
parents or caregivers, as in-built. His reason for this development is
that
babies stay close to their parents because they are provided with
protection.
Human instincts are more flexible and more open to learning
experiences than
those of other species. Just like the imprinting of baby geese,
so too do
human babies attach to his/her parents after many hours of
interaction.
[Wortman, C. , Loftus, E. and Weaver, C. (1999)]. An example of
instinctual
behaviour is that all ants build anthills in the same way, even when
they are
not raised together, then the anthill building behaviour is instinctual
and
not a learned response.(Weiten, 1995). Sex in humans is also instinctual.
We
are not born with the desire to engage in sexual activities but as we
reach
puberty, there is a need for sexual stimulation. Even though we might
not know
what to do, it is instinctual. But, instincts only describe
behaviour, they do
not explain why a person engages in behaviour. Therefore
with regards to the
case study, George`s behaviour, (running the marathon),
is not instinctual. Not
everyone is born to run a marathon, it is a learned
response. (Weiten, 1995).
Sociobiology is the study of the biological
basis for the social behaviour of
humans and other animals. (Worldbook,
1986). Sociobiologists try to ascertain
the function of various types of
behaviour in the life of an animal.
Sociobiology is based on the theory
that the central process of life is the
struggle of genes to reproduce
themselves. Theorists believe that natural
preference favours behaviour that
maximises reproductive attainment -
transmitting genes to the next
generation. According to this theory, an organism
inherits inclinations to
develop certain types of behaviour, and these behaviour
patterns increase an
organism`s chances of transferring its genes to the next
generation. It is
believed that an organism can transmit its genes on, not only
by reproducing
but also by helping related organisms survive and
reproduce.(Weiten, 1995).An
example of this would be a bee stinging an intruder
bee, in order to protect
the life and genes of the queen bee (an organism
sacrificing their life, for
others, therefore passing on its genes). A human`s
will, for sacrificing
their life for a relative or someone they know, is much
stronger than that of
sacrificing their life for someone they do not know. A
lady will not usually
sacrifice her life by running across the road to save a
child, (that she does
not know), in traffic, whereas if it were her own child,
she would sacrifice
her life in order to save her child`s life and to carry on
the genes.
(Weiten, 1995). There are ongoing debates about sociobiology and
its
relevance to human motivation. Some theorists believe that
sociobiologists
overestimate the influence of biology and underestimate the
influence of
culture. (Deverell, A., 1999). In the African culture, African
men consider
African women with large buttocks appealing, but may be
viewed as unattractive
in other cultures. [Wortman, C. , Loftus, E. and
Weaver, C. (1999)]. George is
exhibiting perseverance in the face of
everything bad. George`s perseverance is
a trait that is beneficial to his
survival. George did not run to protect his
genes, it was his own motivation
that made him run the marathon. Most people
would not persevere as George
did. Drive Theory: Clark Hull (1884-1952) defines
a drive as an observation
that organism`s seek to maintain homeostasis, a state
of physiological
equilibrium/stability. (Hull in Weiten, 1995, p.378). A drive
assists an
organism in alleviating inner tension. For example drinking to
alleviate
thirst. Drive theory explains why people eat, sleep, seek pleasure,
avoid
pain and engage in sex. [Wortman, C. , Loftus, E. and Weaver, C.
(1999)].
According to Hullian theorists, there is a distinction between
Primary and
Secondary drives. Primary drives are the most basic, inborn
needs in our
psychological systems and secondary drives, also known as
learned motives, are
learned through association with the reduction of
primary drives. [Wortman, C. ,
Loftus, E. and Weaver, C. (1999)]. It is
understood that most drive theories are
unlearned, biological drives, which
progressively develop a bigger set of
appropriate drives through learning.
[Wortman, C. , Loftus, E. and Weaver, C.
(1999)]. The sleep motive is an
example of drive theory. If a person goes
without sleep, for quite a while,
they begin to experience some discomfort,
tiredness, which is an internal
tension and a drive motivates you to obtain
sleep. Sleeping reduces the drive
and restores physiological balance. (Weiten,
1995). But drive theories
can not explain all facets of human motivation. In
George`s case, drive
theory cannot explain George`s behaviour, as homeostasis is
not maintained.
George went beyond the point of pain, he endured extreme pain,
which is
George`s personal motivation. George`s running the marathon has nothing
to do
with stability/equilibrium. (Weiten, 1995). Incentive Theory is
striving
towards attaining external goals. Incentive theorists believe that
the source of
motivation is external, in the environment, Incentives pull you
to act, whereas
drives push you to act. Incentive theory is not related to
the principle of
homeostasis, it emphasises environmental factors. (Weiten,
1995). Not everyone
can always achieve his or her desired goals.
Expectancy-value models explain one`s
motivation to persevere in two ways,
the merit of the incentive, if it appeals
to you, and the probability of
one`s chances attaining the incentive. Gambling
at a casino is an example of
incentive. Your motivation to gamble will depend on
the amount of money you
could win and on your chances of winning. To draw people
to gamble, large
amounts of money are offered as the prize, making the incentive
value high.
(Weiten, 1995). Incentives can be both positive and negative. A
positive
incentive is a pupil knowing that they will receive a reward if they
obtain a
good result for an exam and a negative incentive is a pupil knowing
that if
they fail the exam, they will be deprived of something they value.
(Weiten,
1995). In relation to George, incentive theory is very suitable
to his behaviour.
George`s behaviour is highly individualistic. Very few
people would subject
themselves to what George did. George persevered, ran
the marathon, and achieved
his goal. George`s incentive was an external
psychological motivation. (Weiten,
1995). Through the different theories
of motivation we can see that motivators
can be internal and external. We
have seen that instinct; sociobiology and drive
theories do not explain
George`s behaviour. Incentive theory explains George`s
behaviour best. Some
psychologists believe that happenings, that we no longer
remember, can still
affect our lives and can influence behaviour motives.