Dyslexia
Whether we graduate from highschool or
college we all hope to find a challenging
career that will propel us forward
in today`s society. For those suffering from
dyslexia this only adds to the
frustration and fears associated with seeking
employment. Many adults with
dyslexia or other forms of learning disabilities
never disclose their
disability in interviews or once employed for fear of being
discriminated
against. Several investigators have noted, however, that many
persons with
learning disabilities adjust well to the demands and complexities
of
adulthood. (Greenbaum et al. 1996). The basic cause of dyslexia is still
not
known, however, much research is being done to determine the problems
underlying
dyslexia. In many cases, dyslexia is highly inherited. Studies
have shown a
number of genes that may set the stage for its development.
Characteristics of
dyslexia are now more apparent to educators than ever
before. Early educational
interventions are helping individuals to manage
their dyslexia. There have been
some studies that attend to accommodating
persons with learning disabilities in
post-secondary and occupational
settings. Only a few articles will be reviewed
having been found worthy of
this subject. However, before reviewing the
articles, in order to gain a
greater understanding of the types of learning
disabilities people face lets
define one of the most significant learning
problems: dyslexia. A Type of
Learning Disability: What is Dyslexia? The word
dyslexia is derived form the
Greek dys (meaning poor or inadequate) and lexis
(works or language).
Dyslexia is a learning disability characterized by problems
in expressive or
receptive, oral or written language. Problems may emerge in
reading,
spelling, writing, speaking, or listening. Dyslexia is not a disease;
it has
no cure. Dyslexia describes a different kind of mind, often gifted
and
productive, that learns differently. Dyslexia is not the result of
low
intelligence nor is the problem solely intelligence. An unexpected gap
exists
between learning aptitude and achievement in school. Dyslexia is not
truly a
visual or auditory problem, but a language problem. Dyslexia results
from
differences in the structure and function of the brain. People with
dyslexia are
unique; each having individual strengths and weaknesses. Many
dyslexics are
creative and have unusual talents in areas such as art,
athletics, architecture,
graphics, electronics, mechanics, drama, music,
engineering, and medical
professions. Dyslexics often show special talent in
areas that require visual,
spatial, and motor integration. Their problems in
language processing
distinguish them as a group. This means that the dyslexic
has problems
translating language to thought (as in listening or reading) or
thought to
language (as in writing or speaking). After looking at what
dyslexia means and
some characteristics of this disability now lets look at a
study of learning
disabilities in the workplace. Research by Greenbaum,
Graham, and Scales (1996)
adults with learning disabilities in the work place
indicate that most adults
adjust well to the demands and complexities of
adulthood. The purpose of this
study was to identify occupational and social
status of adults with learning
disabilities once after college. This study
was conducted at the University of
Maryland. Only eighty-one students
with learning disabilities received
assistance from the office of Disability
Support Services during a twelve-year
span from 1980 to 1992. In the study
conducted by Greenbaum, Graham, and Scales
(1996), out of the 81 former
students, 49 adults with learning disabilities
agreed to be interviewed about
their current employment and social status. The
study was based on increasing
reports of adults with learning disabilities in
recent years and the
questions about the efficacy of special education services.
As Patton and
Polloway (1992) cited by Greenbaum et al. (1996) noted, the
scenario for many
adults with learning disabilities is characterized by
unemployment, low pay,
part-time work, frequent job changes, non-interaction
with community,
limitations in independent living, and limited social lives.
Several
investigators within this study noted persons with disabilities adjust
well
in adulthood years. Greenbaum et al. (1996) found that a number of
adults
with learning disabilities were employed in white-collar jobs (e.g.
lawyer,
urban planner, and real estate investor). Thirty seven percent of
adults with
learning disabilities studied by Gerber et al. as cited by
Greenbaum et al.,
classed as highly successful in their job, eminence within
their occupation,
earned income, job satisfaction and education. Within all
three studies, one
factor for success for adults with learning disabilities
was the level of
education. Persons with mild learning disabilities who
dropped out of high
school are often employed at a lower rate than persons
with mild disabilities
who graduated. (Edgar, l987; Hasazi, Gordon, &
Roe, l985; Zigmond &
Thornton, l985). Persons with learning
disabilities who graduated from college
are more likely to hold a
professional and managerial position than persons with
learning disabilities
who only graduated from high school. (Rogan & Hartman,
l976, 1990). The
successful functioning of persons with learning disabilities
was evident by
post-secondary education. Eighty nine percent of the students
Gerber,
Ginsberg, and Keiff (1992) studied obtained a bachelors degree or
higher. The
current study examined the occupations and social status of adults
with
learning disabilities who graduated from college. Employment
Current
employment at the time of the interview, 35 of the 49 participants
was employed.
One working on graduate school part-time, 7 of the
remaining 14 were engaged
because they were attending school full-time, 2
working on undergraduate
degrees, and 5 were attending graduate school. The
occupations of the
participants varied and included customer service
representative, bartender,
medical researcher, reporter, camp director, bank
teller, salesperson,
mechanical engineer, artist, botanist, corporate vice
president, teacher,
embryologist, investment banker, paramedic, social
worker, securities broker,
line cook, office manager, and so forth. Of the
employed participants, 25 were
in professional, technical, or managerial
positions; eight were in clerical and
sales and two were in service
occupations. Eighty percent of adults with
learning disabilities were
employed full time, in professional or managerial
positions or occupations.
Job Satisfaction Of the 35 employed, 33 were satisfied
with their current
employment. Even though most of the participants enjoyed
their jobs, 21 of
the participants stated they would like a different job.
Reasons for
wanting a different job included a) wanting to make more money b)
wanting a
more challenging or interesting occupation. Social Status All but one
of the
49 participants was socially active. Social activities ranged from going
to
bars, movies, and dinner, as well as sporting events. Only nine of
the
participants said they were unsatisfied with their social lives.
Disclosure of
Learning Disability Of the total of participants who had
been employed, only
nine indicated they had ever disclosed their learning
disability when
interviewing for a job. The reasons for disclosing their
disability to their
interviewers was a) they were not ashamed of their
learning disability and felt
they had learned to compensate b) that their
disability would have an impact on
their performance of the job. Most
participants did not reveal their disability
when applying for their job.
Reasons for not revealing their learning disability
was a) fear of
discrimination and stigmatization b) no longer being affected by
the
disability. The primary reason for not disclosing their disability was
the
fear of discrimination. Impact of Learning Disability Participants in the
study
by Adelman and Vogel as cited by Greenbaum et al. reported that their
learning
disability affected their work and that they had devised specific
strategies for
coping with their difficulties. Some of the strategies include
taking extra time
to complete work, asking for additional help, carefully
monitoring or proofing
own work. In the current study, participants were
knowledgeable about their
disability and its effects on their lives. There
were a total of 41 participants
who had difficulties in multiple areas such
as, reading comprehension,
organization, and note taking. Eight indicated
they had difficulty in only one
area: reading (n=3), composition (n=2),
mathematics (n=2), or information
processing (n=1). Participants typically
described their learning disabilities
with the term dyslexia. What role did
the participants` learning disability
affected their work environment; 39
participants indicated that their learning
disability affected them either at
work or in other areas of their lives. These
areas included reading, writing,
math, and memory. Adelman & Vogel, (1990)
as cited by Greenbaum et al.
(1996) the most common problems centered on
processing, language, and math
difficulties. The current study adds to a growing
body of work indicating
that a learning disability is a persistent problem that
does not go away with
age. Conclusion From this study, we have found that
education plays an
important role in the future success of a person with a
learning disability
as well as persons with learning disabilities adjust well to
the demands and
complexities of adulthood. (Greenbaum et al. 1996) The study
examined some of
the difficulties and fears one may face in the work place. The
article
suggests that self-awareness can help a person with a learning
disability by
strengthening them to become the person they want to be. The
article however,
does not address or suggest specific strategies one may use to
achieve
personal goals. The article did cover how most participants were
unwilling to
disclose their learning disability to their employer. People with
learning
disabilities have specific rights according to the Rehabilitation Act
of 1973
and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. Revealing
learning
disabilities to an employer would allow accommodations and
adjustments for those
people in the work place but the authors did not go
into great detail concerning
discrimination issues. Moving to the second
study, students with learning
disabilities in education face a similar task
as that of adults in the work.
According to Ysseldyke & Algozzine,
1990 as cited by Barga (1996), it is
estimated that five percent of young
school aged adolescents is considered to
have some type of learning
disabilities. Due to the passage of the Brown v.
Board of Education in
1954 schools are now becoming involved in assisting
disadvantaged students.
Congress passed the 1973 Vocational Rehabilitation Act,
which focused on
providing equal education for any and all students with
learning
disabilities. This law mandates that students with learning
disabilities
receive supplemental services while attending educational settings
(Barga,
1996). Today, the number of students in higher educational settings who
have
experienced some type of learning disability has increased from .3 percent
in
1983 to 1.2 percent in 1987 (Heath, 1992). This same survey found
that
students with learning disabilities in postsecondary institutions have
grown to
over 20,000. From this we can clearly see that students with
learning
disabilities are the largest group of students who receive services
that assist
them with the learning process, especially at the college level
(Jarrow, 1987 as
cited by Barga, 1996). Clearly, there has been a great
increase of students who
are showing learning disabilities in the higher
educational arenas. Students
with learning disabilities have difficulty in
reading, writing, and spelling and
with mathematical concepts. Often time`s
students are easily distracted,
unfocused, and have a hard time developing
good time management skills. In
addition, many students who struggle with
learning disabilities have great
difficulty in understanding and following
directions and struggle with different
aspects of their social situations
that they encounter. One of the most
significant facts about these students
is their alarming rate of high school
dropout. According to Lichtenstein, 40
percent of students with learning
disabilities drop out of high school, as
opposed to the 25 percent without
learning disabilities (Lichtenstein, 1992).
The purpose of this study was to
find out the factors that has enhanced the
success of students with learning
disabilities in school settings and to
explore how these students managed their
disabilities from kindergarten
through college. This study was designed due to
the alarming number of
students with learning disabilities who dropped out of
school. There were two
objectives for this study. The first objective was to
find out how students
with learning disabilities managed their disabilities
while in school; and
the second objective was to find the methods of success.
This study was
conducted at an average sized, 4-year state university with an
enrollment of
9,000 students. The students for the study were identified with
the help of
the director of learning disabilities clinic. The students were
first
contacted through a letter that was written and generated by the director
of
the clinic and the researcher. From the letter, four traditional and
five
nontraditional students with learning disabilities were selected for
this study.
Selection was based on verbal response, willingness to
participate in this
study, and availability of time. The age of the students
ranged from 18-45
years, with the median age being 27.5. The range of
disabilities varied widely
from each person. Data for this study was
collected over a six month period of
time and the collection of the data
consisted of conducting semistructured,
open-ended, taped interviews;
completing classroom observations; reviewing
academic files; and collecting
other documents related to the study`s
participants. The focus of the
interviewers was on exploring the student`s
history and educational
experiences from kindergarten through their current
schooling status. The
results indicated that the students experienced various
forms of labeling,
stigmatization, and gatekeeping that created many of the
barriers that they
have faced in their education. To gain a better understanding
of these
results I will define labeling, stigmatization and gatekeeping.
Labeling
is defined as anything functioning as a means of identification or as
a
descriptive term, formal or informal (Barga, 1996). Basically, this means
that
when someone comes into another person`s presence, we label and
categorize the
individual based on his or her appearance. From this study,
students described
labeling as a very positive experience when it made sense
out of their academic
struggles and involved getting help. On the other hand,
labeling was negative
for students when it created conditions of being set
apart from their peers and
receiving differential treatment from other
people. Stigmatization is defined as
receiving differential treatment based
on others` perceptions (Barga, 1996). In
this study, stigmatization took on
several different forms, depending on the
context. At times stigmatization
was evident through name calling, accusations,
and low academic expectations
by peers and teachers. During the college level,
stigmatization was
self-imposed or forced on the students. Gatekeeping is
defined as the barrier
process that serves to maintain the status quo of an
organization (Barga,
1996). This was accomplished by either denying students
with learning
disabilities access to a college goal or permitting access but on
conditional
terms. The coping techniques that were found due to this study were
of great
importance. Coping techniques are behaviors or initiatives the student
takes
to assist in managing his or her disability (Barga, 1996). The first
coping
technique was benefactors. The benefactors functions included
providing
emotional support and understanding, acting as a sounding board for
personal
problems, helping with homework, and being an advocate on behalf of
the student.
The second technique was self-improvement techniques, which
included taking
longer breaks, seeking and initiating help at the university
level, using
positive affirmations for motivation, and seeking situations
that produced
personal growth. The final coping technique was study skills
and management
strategies. Use of technology, relaxation techniques before
tests, taping
classes, maintaining a personal day timer, and the amount of
time devoted to
study. From this study we can clearly see that students
experienced labeling,
stigmatization and gatekeeping and the ways that they
learned to cope with there
disability was through relying on benefactors,
implementing self-improvement
techniques, and utilizing particular strategies
and management skills to assist
students with academics. The results from
this study have tremendous
implications for schools and school
administration. The purpose of this study
was fulfilled and it is of great
importance for the future of students with
learning disabilities. In
conclusion, the findings of research have shown
similarities and differences
in accommodating persons with learning
disabilities. Barga (1996) finding
supports students with learning disabilities
has increased at an alarming
rate and learning disabled students continue to
face challenges in the school
environment. Greenbaum et al. (1996) found after
post-secondary education
persons with learning disabilities adjusted well to the
complexities of
adulthood even though those individuals rarely disclosed their
learning
disability to their employer fearing being discriminated against. How
can we
as a society empower persons with disadvantages to become more aware of
their
rights as defined by the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Americans
with
Disabilities Act of 1990? We should make every effort to inform
students about
services offered in schools as well as their rights to those
services. Employers
need to become more knowledgeable of their
responsibilities to employees faced
with learning disabilities. Both schools
and employers need to become more aware
of discrimination, labeling,
stigmatizations, and gatekeeping that persons are
faced with during their
life as disabled. Due to these negative outcomes,
persons must avoid
disclosing their disability to make it through a school or
work situation.
However, disclosing is starting to become easier as the stigma
lessons, but
unfortunately, discrimination is not yet cleansed from our country.
Some
may wish not to disclose their learning disability, but by using
positive
terms to explain what one needs can be another option. Example: I
need Mary to
proof my work before you see it. That way we can both pay more
attention to the
content and not worry about the way it is typed. Have you
seen the XYZ software?
It gets the computer to talk so that you can hear
what is on the screen. Since
my job requires so much detailed reading, it
would be wonderful if I could hear
it. Then there would be fewer errors.
Regardless of the strategy, one may take.
An accommodation request must
be well thought out, and the easier it is for your
employer, the more likely
your success. As stated in the passage earlier,
participants of the Greenbaum
et al. study indicated difficulties in multiple
areas one being organization.
A strategy for helping organizational skills may
include using a daily
calendar, keeping your work area clean of clutter, color
code items, keep
items on shelves and bulletin boards. Use an alarm feature on
your work
computer so to remind you of important
meetings.
Bibliography
Managing a Disability: Adults with Dyslexia
References Greenbaum, B., Graham,
S., Scales, W. (1996). Adults with
Learning Disabilities: Occupational and
social status after college. Journal
of Learning Disabilities, Vol. 29, No. 2,
167-173. Barga, N. (1996).
Students with learning disabilities in education:
Managing a disability.
Journal of Learning Disabilities, Vol. 29, No. 4,
413-421. Deshler, D.,
Schumaker, J. (1986). Learning strategies: An
instructional alternative for
low-achieving adolescents. Exceptional Children,
Vol. 52, No. 6, 583-590.
Ferri, B., Gregg, N., Heggoy, S. (1997). Profiles of
college students
demonstrating learning disabilities with and without
giftedness. Journal of
Learning Disabilities, Vol. 30, No. 5, 552-559. Wetzel,
K. (1996).
Speech-recognizing computers: A written-communication tool for
students with
learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, Vol. 29,
No. 4,
371-380. Swanson, H., Trahan, M. (1996). Learning disabled and
average
readers` working memory and comprehension: Does metacognition play a
role?
British Journal of Educational Psychology. 66, 333-355. Farmer, M.,
Matthews,
C., Riddick, B., Sterling, C., (1998). Adult dyslexic writing.
The Journal of
the British Dyslexia Association. Vol. 4, No. 1, 1-15.
Alexander, P., Graner, R.
(1989). Metacognition: Answered and unanswered
questions. Educational
Psychologist. 24 (2), 143-158.